--- title: Knowledge management summary: A discipline and set of organizational processes for creating, sharing, applying, and preserving knowledge to improve performance, learning, and innovation. sources: - knowledge-management.md createdAt: "2026-04-18T11:23:06.315Z" updatedAt: "2026-04-18T11:23:06.315Z" tags: - knowledge-management - organizations - strategy - learning aliases: - knowledge-management --- # Knowledge management **Knowledge management** (KM) refers to a range of processes concerned with organizational awareness, learning, collaboration, and innovation. It focuses on using and sharing knowledge in ways that support an organization's goals. ^[knowledge-management.md] As a field, knowledge management gained prominence in the 1990s and draws on business administration, information systems, management, library and information science, and related disciplines such as computer science, public health, public policy, and media studies. Its development is closely associated with the rise of [[knowledge workers]], a term identified by Peter Drucker. Many universities offer specialized KM degrees, and many large corporations, government agencies, and nonprofit organizations maintain dedicated KM efforts within IT, human resources, or business strategy functions. ^[knowledge-management.md] Knowledge management initiatives typically aim to improve performance, strengthen competitive advantage, support innovation, share lessons learned, integrate knowledge across the organization, and enable continuous improvement. KM is related to [[organizational learning]], but places stronger emphasis on knowledge as a strategic asset and on deliberate information sharing. In complex settings such as [[supply chain]]s, where multiple firms interact without a single hierarchy, KM becomes especially challenging; digital transformation and Industry 4.0 further increase this complexity by accelerating the volume and speed of information flows and knowledge generation. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## History and development Knowledge management has a long pre-digital history that includes on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeships, discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training, and mentoring. In the second half of the 20th century, these practices were increasingly supported by technologies such as [[knowledge base]]s, expert systems, information repositories, decision support systems, intranets, and computer-supported cooperative work. In 1999, the term [[personal knowledge management]] was introduced to describe knowledge management at the individual level. ^[knowledge-management.md] Early enterprise case studies emphasized the importance of strategy, process, and measurement in KM. They also highlighted that people and cultural norms are critical to knowledge creation, dissemination, and application, while learning processes, benchmarking, and incentives help accelerate learning and cultural change. In 2015, ISO 9001 incorporated a specification for “organizational knowledge” as part of quality management. ^[knowledge-management.md] KM emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 1990s, alongside practitioner roles such as the [[chief knowledge officer]]. Over time, it also matured academically, with growing collaboration among researchers, reduced practitioner share in academic publishing, and expansion in the number of journals devoted to KM and [[intellectual capital]]. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Main approaches Knowledge management includes multiple disciplines and schools of thought. Common approaches include techno-centric views that emphasize technology for knowledge sharing and creation; organizational views that focus on designing organizations to support knowledge processes; social-psychological views that examine social networks and transactive memory; and ecological views that treat knowledge, people, identity, and environment as a complex adaptive system. Despite these differences, KM is often described in terms of three broad components: people and culture, processes and structure, and technology. ^[knowledge-management.md] Important perspectives within KM include [[community of practice]], [[social network analysis]], [[intellectual capital]], information theory, complexity science, and constructivism. The practical relevance of academic KM research has sometimes been questioned, and action research has been suggested as a way to better connect research findings to practice. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Knowledge types and models A common framework distinguishes between [[tacit knowledge]] and [[explicit knowledge]]. Tacit knowledge is internalized and may not be consciously articulated by an individual, while explicit knowledge is consciously held and can be communicated more easily. Another distinction separates embedded knowledge in systems from embodied knowledge in human capabilities. A third distinguishes between creating new knowledge through exploration and transferring or exploiting established knowledge within a group, organization, or community. Collaborative environments such as communities of practice and social computing tools can support both creation and transfer. ^[knowledge-management.md] One influential model is Nonaka and Takeuchi’s SECI model, which describes a spiral interaction between [[Tacit and explicit knowledge]] through socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization. Related debates have questioned whether the tacit/explicit distinction is too simple, arguing that once knowledge is made explicit it is translated into information represented through symbols. Other work contrasts a content perspective, which treats knowledge as codifiable and storable, with a relational perspective, which emphasizes that knowledge is context-dependent and difficult to share outside the setting in which it was developed. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Strategies Organizations may access or use knowledge before, during, or after KM-related activities, and some have tried to encourage knowledge capture through incentives and performance measures, though evidence on the effectiveness of such incentives remains inconclusive. ^[knowledge-management.md] A widely used distinction separates **push** and **pull** strategies. In a push approach, individuals explicitly encode knowledge into shared repositories such as databases so that others can retrieve it; this is also called **codification**. In a pull approach, individuals seek out experts on an as-needed basis; this is associated with **personalization**, in which knowledge is shared directly between people. Codification is more system- and document-oriented, while personalization is more human-oriented and focuses on knowledge flows through networks and interaction. ^[knowledge-management.md] More generally, KM strategy may include knowledge acquisition, exploitation, exploration, and [[knowledge sharing]], all intended to help organizations increase knowledge and strengthen competitive advantage. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Practices and instruments Knowledge management can be implemented through a broad set of organizational practices. These include fostering a culture of knowledge sharing; inter-project, intra-organizational, and inter-organizational transfer; [[knowledge retention]] efforts to reduce loss when employees leave; mapping knowledge competencies and gaps; and transferring knowledge before employee departure through documents, shadowing, or mentoring. Additional instruments include storytelling, cross-project learning, [[after-action review]]s, [[knowledge mapping]], communities of practice, expert directories, expert systems, best-practice transfer, knowledge fairs, competency-based management, master–apprentice or mentor–mentee relationships, collaborative software such as wikis and blogs, knowledge repositories, measurement of intellectual capital, knowledge brokers, and processes for knowledge capture from experts. ^[knowledge-management.md] Organizations undertake KM for many reasons, including making more knowledge available in product and service development, shortening development cycles, improving consistency of expertise, facilitating innovation and organizational learning, leveraging expertise across the organization, increasing internal and external network connectivity, helping employees obtain relevant insights, addressing difficult or “wicked” problems, and managing intellectual capital in the workforce and in repositories. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Technology KM technologies are often grouped into categories such as collaborative software or groupware, workflow systems, content and document management systems, enterprise portals, e-learning systems, planning and scheduling tools, telepresence tools, and semantic technologies such as ontologies. These categories often overlap in practice. ^[knowledge-management.md] Proprietary KM tools historically relied on closed formats, but the growth of the Internet encouraged adoption of Internet standards. Open-source and freeware tools for blogs and wikis also made capabilities once associated with expensive commercial products more widely available. Some KM work has focused on semantic-level tools as part of the [[Semantic Web]], although the extent of the Semantic Web’s practical success remains debated. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Barriers The term “knowledge barriers” does not have a single agreed definition. In the literature, it has been used to describe barriers that prevent knowledge sharing or transfer, insufficient knowledge caused by limited education, or situations in which a person’s or group’s perceptual framework does not adequately connect with incoming information in order to transform it into knowledge. Such barriers can impose substantial costs on both organizations and individuals. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## [[Knowledge retention]] [[Knowledge retention]] is a part of KM aimed at reducing organizational knowledge loss, especially when experienced knowledge workers leave after long careers. It is described as a complex process that helps convert tacit knowledge into more explicit forms and prevents the loss of intellectual capital. ^[knowledge-management.md] One cited framework divides [[Knowledge retention]] strategies into four categories: human resources, processes and practices; knowledge transfer practices; knowledge recovery practices; and information technologies for capturing, storing, and sharing knowledge. Retention projects are often described in staged terms such as decision-making, planning, and implementation, though alternative stage models also exist. ^[knowledge-management.md] A **knowledge audit** is a comprehensive assessment of an organization’s knowledge assets, including explicit and tacit knowledge, intellectual capital, expertise, and skills. Its purpose is to identify strengths and gaps, guide KM strategy, reduce poor decisions, and improve effectiveness and competitiveness. The importance of a [[Knowledge audit]] varies by sector; for example, it may be particularly significant in software development because of the central importance of skills, expertise, and intellectual capital. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## [[Knowledge protection]] [[Knowledge protection]] refers to actions and behaviors intended to prevent unwanted opportunistic use of knowledge, such as appropriation or imitation. It aims to stop knowledge from becoming unintentionally available or useful to competitors. Examples include patents, copyrights, trademarks, lead time, and secrecy. ^[knowledge-management.md] [[Knowledge protection]] methods are commonly divided into **formal** and **informal** categories, with some authors also identifying **semi-formal** methods such as contracts and trade secrets. Organizations often combine multiple methods to protect knowledge assets effectively, and a central challenge is finding an appropriate mix for the specific organization. ^[knowledge-management.md] Formal protection includes legal instruments and formal procedures or structures that control what knowledge is shared and what is protected. Examples include patents, trademarks, copyrights, licensing, technical access constraints, and protection of communication channels, systems, and storage. Formal methods are especially effective for established knowledge that can be codified and embodied in products or services. ^[knowledge-management.md] Informal protection relies on mechanisms such as secrecy, social norms and values, complexity, lead time, and human resource management practices. These methods are often more effective for knowledge that is difficult to articulate or codify, because they make it harder for outsiders to access and understand knowledge within the organization’s boundaries. ^[knowledge-management.md] A recurring KM challenge is balancing [[knowledge sharing]] with [[Knowledge protection]]. Sharing can support innovation, collaboration, and competitive advantage, while protection helps prevent misuse, misappropriation, or loss. This balance is especially important when organizations collaborate with external partners, and it requires attention to openness, identification of core knowledge areas, and appropriate mechanisms for transfer, collaboration, and information security. ^[knowledge-management.md] [[Knowledge protection]] also involves risks. The source identifies overprotection, which may inhibit follow-on innovation; misappropriation, meaning unauthorized use or theft; infringement claims, which can be costly and damaging; and inadequate protection, which may result in loss of rights and weaker ability to enforce them. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Related concepts Related topics include [[information management]], [[information governance]], [[knowledge transfer]], [[knowledge translation]], [[knowledge engineering]], [[knowledge modeling]], [[knowledge ecosystem]], [[customer knowledge]], [[archives management]], and [[personal knowledge management]]. ^[knowledge-management.md] ## Sources - knowledge-management.md